Content Literacy Strategies
Strategy 1: Semantic Mapping
Semantic maps are graphic displays of word meanings that offer students a visual representation of how words and concepts are related through a network of organized knowledge. The real architects of word maps are the students who use their prior knowledge to deepen their understanding of the topic(s) that result in graphic representations of the relationships and associations of meanings or concepts to the target word. The use of semantic maps as instructional tools provides students with a deepening understanding of words including their concept knowledge, relationships to other words, and multiple meanings.
The semantic mapping strategy is most effective when it is used before, during, and after reading and when the teacher serves as the guide or facilitator to the students who construct their own semantic maps. When semantic mapping is used as a pre-reading strategy, it helps to activate students’ prior knowledge.
Further, the teacher may use the students’ pre-reading semantic maps to determine how much knowledge building is required before students read the text. When using semantic mapping as a post-reading instructional strategy, teachers employ students’ discussions to help them recall and organize information that they have learned from reading text as they make connections to words or concepts related to the topic. Fundamental to the success of the approach is the students’ engagement in discussions of word concepts that focus on deepening their knowledge of the academic vocabulary related to content.
Before Reading:
Prior to reading the text, the teacher examines the text to be read and carefully selects the key words to be learned (content or Tier 2 words) that are critical for understanding the text and the lesson.
1. The teacher introduces the selected content words using the semantic word map and guided discussion.
2. Using chart paper, the blackboard, or a software program with a graphics tool, draw or project the word map so that it is visible to the students. Write the topic or main concept in the center of the map.
3. Distribute semantic maps to the students.
4. Begin the pre-reading discussion that focuses on the content words. As students respond to concept-related questions, write the word and students’ meanings and responses on the map and direct students to do the same.
5. When students fail to respond to the concept-related questions, the teacher should offer a contextual definition of the word that facilitates students’ understanding of the text.
During Reading:
1. As students read, they use their semantic maps to add to the meaning of the words.
2. Before directing the students to read the assigned text, the teacher provides a quick review of the key words.
3. The teacher instructs students to add additional information from their readings to clarify the meanings of the key words. She encourages the students to note additional words that further explain the ideas from their readings.
4. As students read, the teacher reminds students to write down questions about words that need clarification.
After Reading:
1. The teacher engages students in an extended discussion on their readings, focusing on the content words and their meanings.
2. The teacher directs the students to use their semantic maps during the discussion of their reading. She engages students in a discussion that further promotes and deepens their understanding of the content words by building on their conceptual knowledge.
3. As students discuss the reading and use the map as their guides, the teacher directs them to clarify the information that they gleaned from their readings.
4. The teacher guides the discussion with questions that will help students to further understand what they have read. As the students respond to the questions, the teacher notes their responses on the large semantic map as they take additional notes on their own maps.
With the variety of semantic maps that may be used to develop word knowledge, the teacher should select the semantic map that is most appropriate for the readings and content words for developing students’ word knowledge around different disciplines. For example, the traditional semantic map helps to show relations among words, others are suitable for displaying examples and non-examples of the word concept, and others may be used to encourage students to make a personal connection to the word. The graphics below are examples of three different types of semantic maps: Figure 1.1, Semantic Map: Using Word Relationships; Figure 1.2, Semantic Map: Synonyms, Antonyms, Examples, and Non-examples; and Figure 1.3, Semantic Map: Word Connections.
The semantic mapping strategy is most effective when it is used before, during, and after reading and when the teacher serves as the guide or facilitator to the students who construct their own semantic maps. When semantic mapping is used as a pre-reading strategy, it helps to activate students’ prior knowledge.
Further, the teacher may use the students’ pre-reading semantic maps to determine how much knowledge building is required before students read the text. When using semantic mapping as a post-reading instructional strategy, teachers employ students’ discussions to help them recall and organize information that they have learned from reading text as they make connections to words or concepts related to the topic. Fundamental to the success of the approach is the students’ engagement in discussions of word concepts that focus on deepening their knowledge of the academic vocabulary related to content.
Before Reading:
Prior to reading the text, the teacher examines the text to be read and carefully selects the key words to be learned (content or Tier 2 words) that are critical for understanding the text and the lesson.
1. The teacher introduces the selected content words using the semantic word map and guided discussion.
2. Using chart paper, the blackboard, or a software program with a graphics tool, draw or project the word map so that it is visible to the students. Write the topic or main concept in the center of the map.
3. Distribute semantic maps to the students.
4. Begin the pre-reading discussion that focuses on the content words. As students respond to concept-related questions, write the word and students’ meanings and responses on the map and direct students to do the same.
5. When students fail to respond to the concept-related questions, the teacher should offer a contextual definition of the word that facilitates students’ understanding of the text.
During Reading:
1. As students read, they use their semantic maps to add to the meaning of the words.
2. Before directing the students to read the assigned text, the teacher provides a quick review of the key words.
3. The teacher instructs students to add additional information from their readings to clarify the meanings of the key words. She encourages the students to note additional words that further explain the ideas from their readings.
4. As students read, the teacher reminds students to write down questions about words that need clarification.
After Reading:
1. The teacher engages students in an extended discussion on their readings, focusing on the content words and their meanings.
2. The teacher directs the students to use their semantic maps during the discussion of their reading. She engages students in a discussion that further promotes and deepens their understanding of the content words by building on their conceptual knowledge.
3. As students discuss the reading and use the map as their guides, the teacher directs them to clarify the information that they gleaned from their readings.
4. The teacher guides the discussion with questions that will help students to further understand what they have read. As the students respond to the questions, the teacher notes their responses on the large semantic map as they take additional notes on their own maps.
With the variety of semantic maps that may be used to develop word knowledge, the teacher should select the semantic map that is most appropriate for the readings and content words for developing students’ word knowledge around different disciplines. For example, the traditional semantic map helps to show relations among words, others are suitable for displaying examples and non-examples of the word concept, and others may be used to encourage students to make a personal connection to the word. The graphics below are examples of three different types of semantic maps: Figure 1.1, Semantic Map: Using Word Relationships; Figure 1.2, Semantic Map: Synonyms, Antonyms, Examples, and Non-examples; and Figure 1.3, Semantic Map: Word Connections.
Strategy 2: Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy (VSS)
The purpose of the vocabulary self-collection strategy (VSS) is to motivate students to learn new words by promoting a “long-term acquisition and development of the vocabulary of academic disciplines” with the goal of integrating “new content words into students’ working vocabularies.” As students develop word consciousness, or an interest in words, as well as the strategy for becoming a word collector, they will increase their academic vocabularies when confronted with unknown words from varied disciplines. The primary purpose of the VSS is to deepen students’ understanding of words, promote their interest in new words, and offer them a strategy to identify and learn new and fascinating words.VSS consists of selecting, defining, finalizing, and using words. This is accomplished in three stages: before, during, and after reading.
Before:
1. Teacher reads key paragraph aloud.
2. Teacher projects paragraph and uses think aloud to select words of interest.
3. Teacher projects graphic organizer (see figure 2.1). She writes word, says the word, and asks students why they think she has chosen this word as important for learning. Using the graphic organizer, in the appropriate boxes she writes the reasons and the definition.
Before:
1. Teacher reads key paragraph aloud.
2. Teacher projects paragraph and uses think aloud to select words of interest.
3. Teacher projects graphic organizer (see figure 2.1). She writes word, says the word, and asks students why they think she has chosen this word as important for learning. Using the graphic organizer, in the appropriate boxes she writes the reasons and the definition.
During:
1. Ask students to provide at least 5 words from the text they find important.
2. Students complete VSS chart with their words.
After:
1. Students are divided into mixed literacy leveled groups.
2. Using charts and texts, students are directed to appoint a leader who will be responsible for keeping the group focused and
productive.
3. Students will appoint a scribe who will be responsible for recording words and associated information on the VSS chart.
4. Each student takes turns submitting one of their words which the group will discuss and determine whether to include it in their chart.
5. Once all the group’s charts are complete, group selects representative to report charted words to the class.
6. Teacher adds any essential words not chosen by students.
1. Ask students to provide at least 5 words from the text they find important.
2. Students complete VSS chart with their words.
After:
1. Students are divided into mixed literacy leveled groups.
2. Using charts and texts, students are directed to appoint a leader who will be responsible for keeping the group focused and
productive.
3. Students will appoint a scribe who will be responsible for recording words and associated information on the VSS chart.
4. Each student takes turns submitting one of their words which the group will discuss and determine whether to include it in their chart.
5. Once all the group’s charts are complete, group selects representative to report charted words to the class.
6. Teacher adds any essential words not chosen by students.
Strategy 3: Academic Vocabulary
1. Provide a description, explanation, or example of the new term.
2. Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words.
3. Ask students to construct a picture, symbol, or graphic representing the term or phrase.
4. Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of the terms in their notebooks.
5. Periodically ask students to discuss the terms with one another.
6. Involve students periodically in games that allow them to play with terms.
I plan to use this strategy weekly - not only to improve comprehension of a text we're reading as a class but also to work on developing the habit of daily/weekly vocabulary expansion.
2. Ask students to restate the description, explanation, or example in their own words.
3. Ask students to construct a picture, symbol, or graphic representing the term or phrase.
4. Engage students periodically in activities that help them add to their knowledge of the terms in their notebooks.
5. Periodically ask students to discuss the terms with one another.
6. Involve students periodically in games that allow them to play with terms.
I plan to use this strategy weekly - not only to improve comprehension of a text we're reading as a class but also to work on developing the habit of daily/weekly vocabulary expansion.
Strategy 4: Reader’s Theatre
Reader’s Theatre is a powerful strategy for engaging students in reading for meaning as they focus on interpreting the text through its dramatization. Each student receives a part, rehearses it through several re-readings, and enacts the script for an audience that is then performed through an oral reading. Reader’s Theatre offers a wide range of benefits to all participants. Students develop components of language and literacy as they are engaged in interpretative reading of stories of content area texts. Oral communication skills are required as students must speak clearly so that their listeners understand their reading. When students reread their scripts, they improve their accuracy for word reading, pacing, and phrasing of texts, as well as expressive reading. Finally, as students work together while preparing to stage the text, their collaboration will lead them to discuss their parts to achieve appropriate dramatization of the text.
In Reader’s Theatre there are no costumes or props. Members of the cast do not memorize their parts as in rehearsing for a play. Rather, they read their scripts with word accuracy, correct phrasing, and proper intonation to deliver meaning to their audience. Through repeated readings within a collaborative setting monitored by both peers and teacher, students will achieve fluent reading.
1. Class selects a text – students can select play or short story from class library.
2. Ensuring comprehension: introduce the script, frame the story, and provide basic character description.
3. Modeling a fluent reading – teacher reads aloud to model pace, phrasing, and expression while drawing attention to unfamiliar words and discussing meaning and pronunciation.
4. Students are divided into small groups comprised of a mixed range of fluency – this ensures that students who need help will receive it from more capable students.
5. Adapt the script: each group gets a character and/or chapter to adapt, block, and script.
6. Practice the script: The teacher will provide enough time for practice, remind students to focus on how the reading should sound to convey mood, feeling and context, and encourage students to collaborate by reading, listening, and offering advice and assistance when needed.
In Reader’s Theatre there are no costumes or props. Members of the cast do not memorize their parts as in rehearsing for a play. Rather, they read their scripts with word accuracy, correct phrasing, and proper intonation to deliver meaning to their audience. Through repeated readings within a collaborative setting monitored by both peers and teacher, students will achieve fluent reading.
1. Class selects a text – students can select play or short story from class library.
2. Ensuring comprehension: introduce the script, frame the story, and provide basic character description.
3. Modeling a fluent reading – teacher reads aloud to model pace, phrasing, and expression while drawing attention to unfamiliar words and discussing meaning and pronunciation.
4. Students are divided into small groups comprised of a mixed range of fluency – this ensures that students who need help will receive it from more capable students.
5. Adapt the script: each group gets a character and/or chapter to adapt, block, and script.
6. Practice the script: The teacher will provide enough time for practice, remind students to focus on how the reading should sound to convey mood, feeling and context, and encourage students to collaborate by reading, listening, and offering advice and assistance when needed.
Strategy 5: Morphemic Analysis
The goal of all fluent reading is constructing meaning from text. During the course of the day, students in content area classrooms are expected to read from a range of textbooks that contain words they see for the first time. Fluent readers frequently will use one of their word-solving strategies when faced with unknown words. Such a strategy for figuring out the pronunciation and meaning of new and unknown words is a helpful resource that will assist in students' fluency development. Morphemic Analysis strategy is a valuable word-learning approach that fluent readers use to determine unknown words while they are reading. Briefly, readers analyze the word and examine it for word parts they may know. They then use these meaningful parts of the word to figure out the unknown word.
Many new words contain similar roots, prefixes, and suffixes that students may know and can use to help them figure out unknown words. Many adolescent students will be familiar with the more common prefixes and suffixes; however, for some disciplines the academic vocabulary contain Latin and Greek derivatives where direct instruction in prefixes would be beneficial in strengthening their academic vocabularies as well as developing reading fluency. Teachers need to consider the level of students and the academic vocabulary of the discipline before beginning to teach morphemic or structural analysis. Further, when teaching how to analyze words into root words, prefixes, and suffixes, begin with a limited number of words that are familiar to the students.
Many new words contain similar roots, prefixes, and suffixes that students may know and can use to help them figure out unknown words. Many adolescent students will be familiar with the more common prefixes and suffixes; however, for some disciplines the academic vocabulary contain Latin and Greek derivatives where direct instruction in prefixes would be beneficial in strengthening their academic vocabularies as well as developing reading fluency. Teachers need to consider the level of students and the academic vocabulary of the discipline before beginning to teach morphemic or structural analysis. Further, when teaching how to analyze words into root words, prefixes, and suffixes, begin with a limited number of words that are familiar to the students.
Strategy 6: Inference Strategy Guide: Facilitating Reading Between the Lines
The goal of the strategy is to make adolescent readers metacognitive as they engage in dialogue about their thought processes. As the teacher guides students in tapping their background knowledge, citing evidence from text, making text to text connections, the art of making an inference is made visible. The strategy is presented as a cyclical process since students refer back to the text or to their own prior knowledge to make an inference.
First, students will examine both the front and back covers of the text and make predictions in the first column of a three column chart. Second, students will read the first chapter and record observations related to predictions and questions about text. Next, students will work in pairs to discuss observations and questions; and they'll find sources for their notes in text (explicitly stated), prior knowledge, and/or text and prior knowledge. Finally, the teacher will clarify and respond to any unresolved questions from the class.
First, students will examine both the front and back covers of the text and make predictions in the first column of a three column chart. Second, students will read the first chapter and record observations related to predictions and questions about text. Next, students will work in pairs to discuss observations and questions; and they'll find sources for their notes in text (explicitly stated), prior knowledge, and/or text and prior knowledge. Finally, the teacher will clarify and respond to any unresolved questions from the class.
Strategy 7: Questioning the Author (QtA): Constructing Meaning from the Text
The primary purpose of QtA is to construct meaning from the text. In addition, the strategy develops a disposition within the reader to view authors' writing as imperfect, thus requiring the reader to probe and question the author to clarify the meaning of the text. QtA offers a process for facilitating students' understanding of the text by teaching them to question the author to clarify the meaning of the text. The first phase of this strategy involves the teacher reading the selection, segmenting the text for reading, and developing queries for class discussion. Then, the teacher reads the text from the students' perspective to anticipate any problems it may pose to the class and develops queries. Queries are a major aspect of the strategy that students will use to construct meaning. Initiating inquiries are those like: What is the author trying to say here? What is the author's message? What is the author's message? During reading the teacher models the QtA process by posing queries to get at the author's meaning. The teacher brings closure to the discussion of the reading by recapping or summarizing the information that students have learned from their readings.
Strategy 8: Short Sustained Reading
The theory behind sustained silent reading is that if students read more and enjoy it more, they will become better readers As they read each day, they encounter new words, usage, sentence structures, and ideas. Each day adds to their total experience and makes the next day better. With increased practice, reading becomes easier and more enjoyable. Students in class will participate in SSR as part of their bell work each morning. Students will read for 10 to 15 minutes then write a paragraph relating what they've read to either themselves or to another book.
Strategy 9: Academic Controversy
Academic controversy provides a collaborative framework for adolescent learners to explore other points of view on a controversial topic or pertinent issue and to attain academic language proficiency. Adolescent learners tend to stick to their own perspectives on issues, rooted in their own cultures or belief systems; academic controversy provides the opportunity for students to engage in accountable talk and academic writing as they listen carefully, provide and critique evidence, and examine other points of view.
Academic controversy is best accomplished through small group collaborations after a thorough explanation of the ground rules regarding academic discussion is both given and understood. These rules include, but are not limited to, respectfully listen to all points of view, critique ideas and opinions rather than persons, state evidence and research to support position, and work together to reach a rational consensus. Students are presented with a choice of issues (limited by those made available by the teacher), and as groups decide whether to oppose or advocate the issue. Once a side has been agreed upon, groups will make pro vs. con lists to provide a starting point for further research. Once complete, groups will present their findings to the class.
Academic controversy is best accomplished through small group collaborations after a thorough explanation of the ground rules regarding academic discussion is both given and understood. These rules include, but are not limited to, respectfully listen to all points of view, critique ideas and opinions rather than persons, state evidence and research to support position, and work together to reach a rational consensus. Students are presented with a choice of issues (limited by those made available by the teacher), and as groups decide whether to oppose or advocate the issue. Once a side has been agreed upon, groups will make pro vs. con lists to provide a starting point for further research. Once complete, groups will present their findings to the class.
Strategy 10: Probable Passages
The Probable Passage strategy establishes a purpose for reading. It also activates students’ prior knowledge and builds active thinking about a topic by having students make predictions before reading. The activity helps students talk in small groups in an organized way.
Procedure:
1. Choose a set of 8-10 key terms from the article or chapter students are going to read.
2. Students will work in small groups to place the terms in established categories. Have them use the key terms to create a first statement which they predict will summarize their reading.
3. Then they list things that they “hope to discover” based on the words they don’t know or questions that came up during their small group work.
4. Before students begin reading, scan the passage together with the students, drawing their attention to the text structures (title, subtitles, graphics, examples, sidebars, etc.) The teacher can help them locate features of the passage that will help students comprehend the material better.
5. After students finish reading, explain to them that if their first statement didn't match the reading completely, it isn't wrong. It was that their predictions were different from the reading.
6. Go over the “hope to discover” lists and talk about the questions that were/were not answered by the reading.
Procedure:
1. Choose a set of 8-10 key terms from the article or chapter students are going to read.
2. Students will work in small groups to place the terms in established categories. Have them use the key terms to create a first statement which they predict will summarize their reading.
3. Then they list things that they “hope to discover” based on the words they don’t know or questions that came up during their small group work.
4. Before students begin reading, scan the passage together with the students, drawing their attention to the text structures (title, subtitles, graphics, examples, sidebars, etc.) The teacher can help them locate features of the passage that will help students comprehend the material better.
5. After students finish reading, explain to them that if their first statement didn't match the reading completely, it isn't wrong. It was that their predictions were different from the reading.
6. Go over the “hope to discover” lists and talk about the questions that were/were not answered by the reading.
Works Cited
Antonacci, Patricia, and Catherine M. O'Callaghan. Developing Content Area Literacy: 40 Strategies for Middle and Secondary Classrooms. Los Angeles: SAGE, 2011. Print.
Cornwell, Linda. "Scholastic.com for Librarians: What Is Readers Theater." Scholastic.com for Librarians. Scholastic, 2013.
Web.18 Nov. 2013.
"Probable Passages." Content Literacy Strategies. St. Clair County Regional Educational Service Agency, 2013. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.
Cornwell, Linda. "Scholastic.com for Librarians: What Is Readers Theater." Scholastic.com for Librarians. Scholastic, 2013.
Web.18 Nov. 2013.
"Probable Passages." Content Literacy Strategies. St. Clair County Regional Educational Service Agency, 2013. Web. 19 Nov. 2013.